when was the bessemer process invented

Lower steel prices did indeed make steel viable for a plethora of new purposes. Steel greatly improved the productivity of railroads. You cannot attribute it to a particular individual. Bessemer furnace, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron.The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The open-hearth process replaced the Bessemer Process. Bessemer's company became one of the largest in the world and changed the face of steel making. The modern process is named after its inventor,Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on theprocess in 1856. The Bessemer process had an immeasurable impact upon the US economy, manufacturing system, and work force. As early as 1847, Kelly, a businessman-scientist of Pittsburgh, began experiments aimed at developing a revolutionary means of removing impurities from pig iron by an air blast. The Bessemer Process: The Bessemer process allowed people to transform mass quantities of pig iron into steel. Ten years later, Carl Wilhelm Siemens and engineer Pierre-Émile Martin developed the open hearth furnace which yields a sufficient amount of heat to produce much larger masses of steel. In the end Bessemer set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though he could not convey it to his patent users. By 1870 Bessemer steel was widely used for ship plate. It was named after the British inventor Sir Henry Bessemer, who worked to develop the process in the 1850s. J.E. Modern steel is made using technology based on Bessemer's process. Thomas Edison invented many technologies including … This process had an enormous impact on the quantity and quality of steel production, but it was unrelated to the Bessemer-type process employing decarburization. In 1856 Bessemer, working independently in Sheffield, developed and patented the same process. This had the effect of improving the quality of the finished product, increasing its malleability—its ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures and making it more suitable for a vast array of uses. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. bessemer converter a refractory-lined furnace used to convert pig iron into steel by the Bessemer process; bessemer process (formerly) a process for producing steel by blowing air through molten pig iron at about 1250°C in a Bessemer converter: silicon, manganese, … The blowing of air through the molten pig iron introduces oxygen into the melt which results in oxidation, removing impurities found in the pig iron, such as silicon, manganese, and carbon in the form of oxides. The process and the converter are both named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The solution was to turn to steel rails, which the Bessemer process made competitive in price. invented by Sir Henry Bessemer in the early 1850's - It was a way to efficiently melt metals in less time and cut off laborers - It was created since metals were needed to build such as, other inventions, buildings and railroads. He was forced to leave Paris by the French Revolution, and returned to Britain. On that basis, Kelly received the patent for the Bessemer process in the United States. Whereas Kelly had been unable to perfect the process owing to a lack of financial resources, Bessemer was able to develop it into a commercial success. Hereof, where was the Bessemer process invented? [39] Steel rail cars were longer and were able to increase the freight to car weight from 1:1 to 2:1. The Bessemer Process, made in 1850 by Henry Bessemer, is a technique we use by in injecting air into molten iron to remove the carbon and other impurities Invented by Henry Bessemer First inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel We Use Steel For: The modern process is named after its inventor,Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on theprocess in 1856.The process allowed for such projects of industrial scale, including the creation of railroad lines. Herein, where was the Bessemer process first used? [15][22], A 20% share in the Bessemer patent was also purchased for use in Sweden and Norway by Swedish trader and Consul Göran Fredrik Göransson during a visit to London in 1857. Sir Henry Bessemer (January 19, 1813 – March 15, 1898), English engineer and inventor. Before it was introduced, steel was far too expensive to make bridges or the framework for buildings and thus wrought iron had been used throughout the Industrial Revolution. Though named after Sir Henry Bessemer of England, the process evolved from the contributions of many investigators before it could be used on a broad commercial basis. [19][20] Mushet's patent ultimately lapsed due to Mushet's inability to pay the patent fees and was acquired by Bessemer. During the first half of 1858, Göransson, together with a small group of engineers, experimented with the Bessemer process at Edsken near Hofors, Sweden before he finally succeeded. [5], Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to four ironmasters, for a total of £27,000, but the licensees failed to produce the quality of steel he had promised—it was "rotten hot and rotten cold", according to his friend, William Clay[15]—and he later bought them back for £32,500. Holley built the new steel mill for Carnegie, and continued to improve and refine the process. The Bessemer Process, made in 1850 by Henry Bessemer, is a technique we use by in injecting air into molten iron to remove the carbon and other impurities Invented by Henry Bessemer First inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel We Use Steel For: Railroads Buildings Machines. [2][12][13] This process was first described by the prolific scholar and polymath government official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) in 1075, when he visited Cizhou. Henry Bessemer’s father, Anthony, was born in London, but moved to Paris when he was 21 years old. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. The Open Hearth process was created as an extension and refinement of the Bessemer process. [2][3] In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese. This drastically reduced the costs of steel production, but raw materials with the required characteristics could be difficult to find.[33]. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, a Londoner with a Welsh father, was an industrial chemist who decided to tackle the problem of phosphorus in iron, which resulted in the production of low grade steel. The process allowed for such projects of industrial scale, including the creation of railroad lines. The egg-shaped converter was tilted down to pour molten pig iron in through the top, then swung back to a vertical position and a blast of air was blown through the base of the converter in … A Swedish ironmaster, Goran Goransson, redesigned the Bessemer furnace, or converter, making it reliable in performance. BESSEMER PROCESS. The Bessemer Process was named after its discoverer – Sir Henry Bessemer. Production continued in Edsken, but it was far too small for the industrial-scale production needed. Another drawback to Bessemer steel, its retention of a small percentage of nitrogen from the air blow, was not corrected until the 1950s. The Japanese may have made use of a Bessemer-type process, which was observed by European travellers in the 17th century. [27], Bessemer steel was used in the United States primarily for railroad rails. The trio began setting up a mill in Troy, New York in 1865. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas's invention consisted of using dolomite or sometimes limestone linings for the Bessemer converter rather than clay, and it became known as the 'basic' Bessemer rather than the 'acid' Bessemer process. Heat released by the oxidation of dissolved silicon, manganese, and carbon was enough…. The first Bessemer Converter went live in 1858. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Pig iron has much more carbon in it than steel, which made it less sturdy and strong. The egg-shaped converter was tilted down to pour molten pig iron in through the top, then swung back to a vertical position and a blast of air was blown through the base of the converter in a dramatic fiery ‘blow'. The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make steel of this quality to about half an hour while requiring only the coke needed initially to melt the pig iron. When Kelly went bankrupt, Bessemer - who had been working on a similar process for making steel - bought his patent. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, producing crucible steel. It funded Holley's second mill as part of its Pennsylvania Steel subsidiary. An additional advantage was that the processes formed more slag in the converter, and this could be recovered and used very profitably as a phosphate fertilizer. Bessemer converters did not remove phosphorus efficiently from the molten steel; as low-phosphorus ores became more expensive, conversion costs increased. Year after year, it has not only ceased to make progress, but it has absolutely declined." The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace.The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The process also decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. [38] Open-hearth steel was suitable for structural applications. Air is blown in through openings (tuyeres) near the bottom, creating oxides of silicon and manganese, which become part of the slag, and of carbon, which are carried out in the stream of air. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Abe, E. The Technological Strategy of a Leading Iron and Steel Firm: Bolckow Vaughan Co. Ltd: Late Victorian Industrialists Did Fail. It was apparently conceived independently and almost concurrently by Bessemer and by William Kelly of the United States. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. He was knighted in 1879. The modern process is named after its inventor,Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on theprocess in 1856. It is hard to … By the early 19th century the puddling process was widespread. In 1877, the Thomas process, a modified Bessemer process, was developed to permit the treatment of liquid iron with high phosphorus. when was bessemer process invented? [11] Hartwell states that perhaps the earliest center where this was practiced was the great iron-production district along the Henan–Hebei border during the 11th century.[11]. He writes, "They have, among others, particular invention for the melting of iron, without the using of fire, casting it into a tun done about on the inside without about half a foot of earth, where they keep it with continual blowing, take it out by ladles full, to give it what form they please." US1709389A US717282A US71728224A US1709389A US 1709389 A US1709389 A US 1709389A US 717282 A US717282 A US 717282A US 71728224 A US71728224 A US 71728224A US 1709389 A US1709389 A US 1709389A Authority US United States Prior art keywords bessemer heat amount making steel iron Prior art date 1924-06-02 Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not … By this method he hoped to cause the new process to gain in standing and market share.[15]. [25] Using the Bessemer process, Carnegie Steel was able to reduce the costs of steel railroad rails from $100 per ton to $50 per ton between 1873 and 1875. The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The conversion process, called the "blow", was completed in approximately 20 minutes. The Bessemer process also helped pave the way for further innovation in iron and steel producing. The advantages of pure oxygen blast over air blast were known to Henry Bessemer,[citation needed] but 19th-century technology was not advanced enough to allow for the production of the large quantities of pure oxygen necessary to make it economical. By the 1850s, the speed, weight, and quantity of railway traffic was limited by the strength of the wrought iron rails in use. He is most famous for inventing this process. There was a spectacular reaction resulting from the combination of impurities in…, One difficulty with Bessemer’s process was that it could convert only a pig iron low in phosphorus and sulfur. Basic oxygen steelmaking is essentially an improved version of the Bessemer process (decarburization by blowing oxygen as gas into the heat rather than burning the excess carbon away by adding oxygen carrying substances into the heat). The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Thus, with the advent of this technology, coal began to replace charcoal fuel. The Bessemer process was the first method for making steel cheaply and in large quantities, developed during the early 1850s. He became a member of the French Academy of Science, for his improvements to the optical microscope when he was 26. In his visit to Cizhou, this process was described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo as ‘a method of repeated forging of cast iron into steel using a cold blast over the molten metal to reduce carbon content, much like the Western Bessemer process’. The open-hearth process was in turn replaced by the basic oxygen process, which is actually an extension and refinement of the Bessemer process. View Bassemer_Process_ from HIST N/A at Clinton High, Clinton. Kelly reckoned that Bessemer stole his idea, having heard about it from some itinerant foundrymen that he had employed before they went to England. An example of this is the Bessemer process, the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel. It embossed the seal and stamp into the official document. The factory contained a number of Holley's innovations that greatly improved productivity over Bessemer's factory in Sheffield, and the owners gave a successful public exhibition in 1867. In 1856 Bessemer, working independently in Sheffield, developed and patented the same process. The Bessemer process was made practical by Robert Mushet, who advised the addition of spiegeleisen in 1857 to steel for deoxidation. 1855 – The Bessemer process is introduced. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace.The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. Sinologist Joseph Needham and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel. Related words. Science also led to the publication of Rachel Carson’s book “Silent Spring” in the 1960s, thereby giving rise to environmental consciousness. Bessemer process is a method for making steel by blasting compressed air through molten iron to burn out excess carbon and impurities. These are also known as Gilchrist–Thomas converters, after their inventors, Percy Gilchrist and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas. It was invented in 1851 by William Kelly but was was independently invented by Henry Bessemer in 1855 (and Bessemer took out a patent on the process). )…, Another major advance was Henry Bessemer’s process, patented in 1855 and first operated in 1856, in which air was blown through molten pig iron from tuyeres set into the bottom of a pear-shaped vessel called a converter. Business History, 1996, Vol. Bessemer earned over 5 million dollars in royalties from the patents. [28][29] Bids had been submitted for both crucible steel and Bessemer steel; John A. Roebling's Sons submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel,[30] but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to J. Lloyd Haigh Co..[31], Using the Bessemer process, it took between 10 and 20 minutes to convert three to five tons of iron into steel — it used to take at least a full day of heating, stirring and reheating to achieve this.[26]. Bessemer process, the first method discovered for mass-producing steel. Henry Bessemer definitions | Quizlet – Simple free learning tools … british engineer who invented a process to produce steel: 50 sets: 4: bessemer process: …process to purify iron ore and produce steel: 5 sets: 18: bessemer process (steel) »More detailed [16] His plan had been to offer the licenses to one company in each of several geographic areas, at a royalty price per ton that included a lower rate on a proportion of their output in order to encourage production, but not so large a proportion that they might decide to reduce their selling prices. As early as 1895 in the UK it was being noted that the heyday of the Bessemer process was over and that the open hearth method predominated. The Bessemer process revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, from £40 per long ton to £6–7 per long ton, along with greatly increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital raw material. Several of them have since returned to England and may have spoken of my invention there. Problems and Consequences There he invented a process for making gol… Who Invented the Bessemer Process? The company was renamed Sandviken’s Ironworks, continued to grow and eventually became Sandvik in the 1970s. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. It consisted of a large vessel charged with molten iron, through which cold air was blown. Who invented the bessemer steel process? (These elements could have been removed by adding a basic flux such as lime, but the basic slag produced would have degraded the acidic refractory lining of Bessemer’s converter. Click to see full answer. 1855 The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. Upon returning to the US, Holley met with two iron producers from Troy, New York, John F. Winslow and John Augustus Griswold, who asked him to return to the United Kingdom and negotiate with the Bank of England on their behalf. Henry Bessemer took out the patent for his converter in 1856. The earliest Bessemer converters produced steel for £7 a long ton, although it initially sold for around £40 a ton. After the blow, the liquid metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added, depending on the desired product. Powered by Create your own unique website with customizable templates. [18], The solution was first discovered by English metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet, who had carried out thousands of experiments in the Forest of Dean. A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia. Who Invented The Process To Purify Iron Ore To Steel. Quality problems, such as brittleness caused by nitrogen in the blowing air,[37] prevented Bessemer steel from being used for many structural applications. The air-blown converter invented by Bessemer in 1856 is considered to be the first modern steelmaking process. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Most of the World named this as Siemens-Martin process. Bessemer's father, Anthony, was born in London into a Huguenot family, but moved to Paris when he was 21 years old. Bessemer patented "a decarbonization process utilizing a blast of air" in 1855. The Bessemer process - the conversion of iron into steel - was invented and patented by Henry Bessemer in 1856. The Miracle of Electricity 7. While Bessemer was working on his process in England, an American, William Kelly, developed a process using the same principle, which he patented in 1857. He wrote that "I have reason to believe my discovery was known in England three or four years ago, as a number of English puddlers visited this place to see my new process. This produced higher quality crucible steel but increased the cost. who invented the bessemer steel process? It was named after the British inventor Sir Henry Bessemer, who worked to develop the process in the 1850s. The Bessemer process allowed steel to be produced without fuel, using the impurities of the iron to create the necessary heat. Melting of metal typically is accomplished with coal and coke fires (Fig. The process was independently discovered in 1851 by William Kelly. traduction bessemer process dans le dictionnaire Anglais - Français de Reverso, voir aussi 'bestseller',beeper',beseech',besiege', conjugaison, expressions idiomatiques This produced blister steel. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings are used when there is little phosphorus in the raw material – this is known as the acid Bessemer process. Subsequent bulk steel processes that were developed included the Siemens’ reverberatory or open-hearth method (ibid). An example of this is the Bessemer process, the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel. The Troy factory attracted the attention of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which wanted to use the new process to manufacture steel rail. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen (a ferromanganese alloy), can be added to the molten steel once the impurities have been removed. 1855 The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The manufacturing process, called the cementation process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. Early life. The modern use of photoelectric methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia. When the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. This partnership began to manufacture steel in Sheffield from 1858, initially using imported charcoal pig iron from Sweden. The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the "basic Bessemer process" or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 (approximately £3,390 to £4,070 in 2008)[34] a long ton. [11] Sinologist Joseph Needham and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel. One of the first Bessemer steelmaking operations appeared in nearby Steelton, PA in 1895. The Bessemer Steel Process was a method of producing high-quality steel by shooting air into molten steel to burn off carbon and other impurities. He was knighted in 1879. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron.The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The Bessemer converter is a cylindrical steel pot approximately 6 metres (20 feet) high, originally lined with a siliceous refractory. He was an English man born in 1813. It has been suggested, both at that time and more recently, that the cause of this was the lack of trained personnel and investment in technology rather than anything intrinsic to the process itself. [2][3] Economic historian Robert Hartwell writes that the Chinese of the Song Dynasty innovated a "partial decarbonization" method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast. The process was independently discovered in 1851 by William Kelly. Henry Bessemer recognized the situation and invented the embossing sealing machine. One of the first Bessemer steelmaking operations appeared in nearby Steelton, PA in 1895. Henry Bessemer was an English inventor, engineer and entrepreneur. The Bessemer Process, invented in England in 1856, was the first large-scale steelmaking process. In this article, we take a look at Bessemer’s life and achievements, and explain the specifics of a process that inspired the Industrial Revolution. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Robert Hadfield developed a wear-resistant steel containing manganese as an alloying agent in 1888. (Encyclopedia Brittanica, Bessemer Process) 31 … Whereas Kelly had been unable to perfect the process owing to a lack of financial resources, Bessemer was able to develop it into a commercial success. He realised that the technical problem was due to impurities in the iron and concluded that the solution lay in knowing when to turn off the flow of air in his process so that the impurities were burned off but just the right amount of carbon remained. They noted that the expansion of railroads into previously sparsely inhabited regions of the country had led to settlement in those regions, and had made the trade of certain goods profitable, which had previously been too costly to transport.[36]. In 1855, English engineer Henry Bessemer introduced, for the first time, an inexpensive technique to produce steel, and it was named as the Bessemer process. It was replaced by processes such as the basic oxygen (Linz–Donawitz) process, which offered better control of final chemistry. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/technology/Bessemer-process, Wirral Model Engineering Society - Bessemer Process, Engineering and Technology History Wiki - Bessemer Process, Institution of Chemical Engineers - Chemengers Who Changed The World. In making crucible steel, the blister steel bars were broken into pieces and melted in small crucibles, each containing 20 kg or so. Read More on This Topic Bessemer’s name is chiefly known in connection with the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel. Up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. 11/16/2014 11:20:14 pm. [40] For example, one of the major causes of the decline of the giant ironmaking company Bolckow Vaughan of Middlesbrough was its failure to upgrade its technology. Henry Bessemer, in full Sir Henry Bessemer, (born January 19, 1813, Charlton, Hertfordshire, England—died March 15, 1898, London), inventor and engineer who developed the first process for manufacturing steel inexpensively (1856), leading to the development of the Bessemer converter. Modern Steel. Bessemer Process: This process was invented by British engineer who patented more than 100 inventions over his lifetime. 38, No. The new mill, known as the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, opened in 1875, and started the growth of the United States as a major world steel producer. In 1862, he visited Bessemer's Sheffield works, and became interested in licensing the process for use in the US. The modern process is named after its inventor,Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on theprocess in 1856. The process allowed for such projects of industrial scale, including the creation of railroad lines. In this article, we take a look at Bessemer’s life and achievements, and explain the specifics of a process that inspired the Industrial Revolution. Henry Bessemer invented “Process for Mass-Producing Steel” Sir Henry Bessemer was a British engineer and inventor who is most well known for devising a cheap process of manufacturing steel. Bessemer patented his process in October 1855. Pig iron has much more carbon in it than steel, which made it less sturdy and strong. In the Thomas process, phosphorus (P) was oxidized in what is called an ‘after blow’ after most of the C was removed from the bath. Sir Henry Bessemer invented the first ever process for mass-producing steel. The Bessemer process also helped pave the way for further innovation in iron and steel producing. The process was independently discovered in 1851 by William Kelly. [43] It was eventually superseded by basic oxygen steelmaking. To create the Bessemer Process he invented a large, pear-shaped receptacle called a converter and utilized a blast of air in a de-carbonization process to create the steel from iron. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite, linings are used in the alkaline Bessemer limestone process. Dec 16, 2014 - The process of making steel is referred to as Bessemer process and it was invented by Henry Bessemer in the year 1856 in England. The Bessemer Process: The Bessemer process allowed people to transform mass quantities of pig iron into steel. Bessemer converter, schematic diagram. Henry Bessemer demonstrated the process in 1856 and had a successful operation going by 1864. who invented bessemer process? Therefore, the counter fighter couldn’t copy the official documents and make fakes. He received the patent right In 1877, the Thomas process, a modified Bessemer process, was developed to permit the treatment of liquid iron with high phosphorus. [4], In the early 1850s, the American inventor William Kelly experimented with a method similar to the Bessemer process, but the claim the two invented the same process remains controversial. 5). A very similar process to what we know as the ‘Bessemer’ process has existed since 11th century Asia. In 1877, Abram Hewitt wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Updates? After several failures, he succeeded in proving his theory and rapidly producing steel ingots. The American steel industry was able to then mass produce steel because it shortened the time required to make steel from days to hours using the Blast furnace. Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, but not on an industrial scale. "The Beginnings of Cheap Steel by Philip W. Bishop", "The Sandvik Journey : de första 150 åren - Ronald Fagerfjäll - inbunden (9789171261984) | Adlibris Bokhandel", 10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1300778, chapter on Holley and Bessemer process online, Cheryl A. Kashuba, "William Walker led industry in the city", "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present", Blaenavon World Heritage Site: Blaenavon and the 'Gilchrist-Thomas' Process, "Rail that Survived Demolition by "Lawrence of Arabia": An Analysis", "How the Modern Steel Furnace Does Its Work", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&oldid=1013813551, Pages containing links to subscription-only content, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 23 March 2021, at 16:05.
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